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Fantasy art surreal 3d image illusions cool optical pictures Pop Art and the Origins of Post-Modernism
Book by Cambridge University Press, 2001

Introduction
This study is based upon the retrospective and now widespread identification of American pop art of the sixties as an expression of post-modernism. 1 More specifically, this identification concerns New York pop, the form associated with the leading centre of art in both America and the world during this period. The immediate stimulus for this study lies in the question: Did the post-modernist art of American pop art in its initial form in the sixties give rise to a corresponding critical consciousness? In other words, can critical responses to pop during this same period also be retrospectively identified as post-modernist? This question determines the central task of this study: the recognition and establishment of the nature of post-modernist features in the critical consciousness generated by American pop art during the sixties. 2 The retrospectivity of this endeavour should be stressed. What is offered by this work is a comparison between the ideas of a select group of American critics writing in the 1960s in response to the challenge of pop art, ideas that bear a striking similarity to that body of thought and opinion that is now associated with post-modernism. Hans Bertens's history of post-modernism, published in 1995, provides a precedent for this study's retrospective argument. In reference to the writings of American literary figures, namely Leslie Fiedler, Susan Sontag, and Ihab Hassan, as well as the music theorist Leonard B. Meyer, Bertens claimed that “much of what is now broadly seen as the postmodernist agenda was already more or less in place by the end of the 1960s. ” 3

The findings of this study centre on the relevant critical writings of Lawrence Alloway, Harold Rosenberg, Leo Steinberg, Max Kozloff, Barbara Rose, and Susan Sontag. These critics were all key figures in the New York art world or, in the case of Sontag, literary world during the period under review. Collectively, they span a number of generations and encompass two distinct approaches to the theorization of American pop art. Lawrence Alloway, Harold Rosenberg, and Leo Steinberg, for example, drew on critical philosophies that had been formulated or, at least, initiated in advance of the movement itself. Steinberg was born in 1920 and Alloway some six years later in 1926. The origin of their respective critical philosophies and, hence, interpretations of pop can be traced to the inaugural phase of their critical careers in the fifties. In Alloway's case, it concerned the “fine art-pop art continuum, ” the inclusive theory of both art and culture that Alloway had developed during the late fifties in Britain. It was dependent, in particular, on a factor that enabled Alloway to relate “high” and “low” cultural forms in the non-hierarchical manner of a continuum: the functionalist and non-essentialist conception of fine art as communication and, as reflected in pop art's subject-matter, as “one of the possible forms … in an expanding framework that also includes the mass arts. ” 4 “Other Criteria” (1972) represents Steinberg's savage, if belated, “deconstruction” of Greenberg's formalist argument as outlined in the 1965 version of “Modernist Painting. ” It also presents Steinberg's alternative, sociological case for pop and its anonymous counterpart in 1960's abstraction. Steinberg's decided opposition to formalism had been a feature of his criticism since 1953. It was at this time that Steinberg published his first article on contemporary art in which he argued for the centrality of representation in the “esthetic function” of all (including modern abstract) art. 5

Rosenberg, the oldest critic featured in this study, was born in 1906. The critical philosophy that he brought to bear on his reception of pop, as with that of action painting in the previous decade, had evolved over a far longer period than either Steinberg's or Alloway's. It encompassed two ideological positions that, while distinct and while responsible for Rosenberg's alternate positive appraisal of action painting and negative one of pop, were joined by the common goal of human freedom. This concerned the “anti-Stalinism” or “Marxist anti-Communism” of the late thirties, the first decade of Rosenberg's critical career, and the “liberal anticommunism” of the fifties 6 as expressed in the tenets of existentialism. Max Kozloff and Barbara Rose were born in 1933 and 1937 respectively. Unlike the critics discussed so far, the commencement of their critical careers coincided with the emergence of pop. The critical theories they would apply to this movement were moulded by their experience of sixties' art in both its pop-figurative and abstract forms and, integral to this experience, the failure of existing critical traditions, notably Greenbergian formalism, to meet its demands. Rose's break with Greenbergian formalism, the most authoritative critical position of the day, was far more circumspect and gradual than Kozloff's and would not be complete until the close of the decade. The studied independence of both critics from fixed and absolute aesthetic standards, however, whether they were those of Greenbergian formalism or any other inflexible critical theory, took place under the powerful counter-influence of deconstructive philosophies – phenomenology in the case of Kozloff and pragmatism in that of Rose.

Susan Sontag was born in 1933, the same year as Kozloff. The beginning of her critical career pre-dated that of Kozloff and Rose by only a few years. Her approach to the theorization of pop, however, as it formed part of the broader and inter-disciplinary category of contemporary art, arguably sits mid-way between those discussed so far. The evidence presented by Sontag's critical writings examined in this study, especially “Against Interpretation” and “The Aesthetics of Silence” and their various arguments for the lack of authorial perspective in contemporary art, indicate that she grafted a theoretical framework, one largely drawn from an extensive knowledge of both philosophy and literary theory, onto her first-hand experience of sixties' New York art. To the extent that this framework included Alain Robbe-Grillet's and Roland Barthes's theoretical writings on nouveau roman and, in this mediated form, Heidegger's existential phenomenology, it illustrates Sontag's deep engagement with French post-war culture to which she was exposed during attendance at the University of Paris 1957–58. 7

Despite differences in both the age and critical philosophy of these critics, the post-modernist features of their respective theorizations of American pop art were in all cases the result of the failure of prevailing formalist and realist critical canons to meet the critical challenges issued by pop. Briefly defined, these concerned pop art's anonymity, its erosion of boundaries between categorical and cultural realms, as evident in both subjectmatter and techniques, and its depiction of not “nature” but, rather, “culture, ” that is, the illusory, mediate world created by mass communications in their sophisticated post-war form. Critical responses to these features of pop, now considered post-modernist, fall into two broad groups: first, pop understood as a reflection of the post-war societal form, especially of its dominant and defining characteristics of mass communications and capitalist consumerism; second, pop understood as subversive of both “worldviews” and many of the factors necessary for their formation. 8 As will be explained in greater detail in the first chapter of this study, these perceptions of pop comply with two main deconstructive post-modernist models: first, the philosophical model such as that formulated by either David Ray Griffin or Patricia Waugh; 9 the second, which is a variation of the first, the sociological model defined by David Lyon and Zygmunt

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